Major Issue: Synthesizing Research Results
The session devoted considerable time to identifying some of what has been learned from
MMS socioeconomic studies in the Pacific Region. It was noted that an econometric study of
the impact of the oil industry on personal income in the tri-county area had found almost
negligible effects. This prompted both efforts at explanation (such as observations on the
relatively small share of the local economy for which the oil industry accounts) and a
discussion of how MMS socioeconomic studies have developed a more sophisticated
understanding of the nature of community impacts. That is, they have developed an
appreciation for communities as networks of social relationships rather then merely
“geopolitical centers.” Hence, the impact of oil and gas development can be
disproportionate to its narrowly defined economic effects. In the Pacific Region, the
influence of oil and gas development has permeated the social fabric of many coastal
communities, even where its effects on personal income have been comparatively small. Such
a phenomenon makes qualitative as well as quantitative research vitally important. It was
also noted that, while no single study has focused on the phenomenon, the results of a
number of studies suggest that a neglected effect of oil and gas development is often the
development in the local population of new skills that are potentially transferable to new
locales or new local enterprises. One participant also pointed out that a great deal has
been learned not simply from the studies themselves but from public responses to reports
on research results and responses to the process of conducting studies.
It was proposed that it would be beneficial to go beyond such local stock-taking to
review and synthesize the results of research on OCS development impacts, not only in all
three U.S. regions but also around the world, for example, in Newfoundland and the North
Sea. What can be learned about methodology as well as from research findings? What can be
learned about how to make findings more useful for decision-making? It was noted that such
an effort has been suggested in previous MMS workshops, but the program was not yet ready
to review and synthesize. Perhaps, it was argued, enough research has now been done to
make the effort worthwhile.
It was observed that one could not gauge the effects of MMS socioeconomic studies on
decision-making in the region because there has been no need to make a decision on a lease
sale since the early 1980s. The results of socioeconomic research in the region, however,
have accomplished several things, participants pointed out. They have deepened
understanding of the nature of socioeconomic impacts on communities. Research on public
opinion has improved understanding of how the agency should conduct its role in
decision-making processes. And research has identified issues and concerns that the NEPA
process will have to address in any future decision-making and produced information that
will be useful to decision makers.
Major Issue: Encouraging Cross-Disciplinary Research
Past research has shown that oil and gas development has significant effects on both
commercial and recreational fishing. It was pointed out that many kinds of factors
(technological, ecological, social, etc.) affect the capacity of fishers to adapt to
changing circumstances. Discussion of this issue led to strong statements of the need to
employ “pluralistic methodologies” and to promote cross-disciplinary research.
It was also pointed out that a cross-disciplinary approach is essential to understanding
the dynamics of communities. Participants observed that while collaboration among
different kinds of social scientists is clearly important, the greatest and most
intractable disciplinary divide is that between social scientists and natural scientists.
Some government agencies issue RFPs that give points for projects that bring together a
variety of disciplines. And the ESP already funds projects in a variety of disciplines and
has cross-disciplinary connections through the University of California at Santa Barbara
Marine Science Institute. Hence, the socioeconomic studies effort is in a good position to
promote greater cross-disciplinary collaboration.
Major Issue: Understanding Decommissioning
Component Issues:
Understanding Industry Decision-Making
It was observed that a variety of factors that influence decisions concerning when to
decommission rigs are not well understood. Larger industry trends affect incentives for
major producers to maintain production in the Pacific region and may make it advantageous
to hand over rigs to independent producers at very low cost. Such decisions are driven not
simply by the level of productivity of rigs but by issues of amortization of equipment,
the potential costs of decommissioning (hence, the advantages of extending the lives of
rigs in the hands of independents) and accounting considerations. Regulatory requirements
that affect costs are also a major issue.
Understanding Alternative Uses for Rigs
Participants noted that the real value of alternative uses for decommissioned rigs is not
adequately understood. What is their value for recreational use? How does distance from
shore or from population centers affect their value as diving or sport fishing sites? Some
fishers value drilling platforms for the fish habitat they provide, suggesting the value
of removing only the upper portions of the rigs and leaving the sub-surface structure in
place. This, however, may be a hazard to boaters. Are there other feasible
non-recreational uses, such as, for example, aquaculture?
Regarding the value of sinking platforms to provide aquatic habitat (“rigs to
reefs”), it was suggested that liability for the sunken structure is an element in
the cost-benefit equation, although (as the cost of insurance) it would be part of an oil
company’s operational costs and not of direct concern to the MMS. The biological
question, one participant argued, was most fundamental. That is, would sunken platforms
actually provide biological benefits?
Major Issue: Understanding Perceptions of Risk Among
Activists and the General Public
Participants raised questions about the relevance of general public opinion to the
“public” role in OCS decision-making. Community organizations and activist
groups, it was argued, dominate public participation in decision-making processes. Hence,
one participant noted, public meetings on OCS issues often did not constitute general
public discussion. Further, one participant argued that MMS studies have little effect on
general public opinion, which is shaped largely by the media and activist organizations.
Media coverage, it was suggested, tends to emphasize the risks of OCS activity and
downplay evidence that risks are low, perhaps due to the skill of activist groups in using
the media.
Major Issue: Understanding Traditional Knowledge
Component Issues:
Using Traditional Knowledge
Participants recounted several cases in which local people in close touch with the natural
environment have made useful and accurate observations on natural events. Alaskan
villagers, for example, were able to provide researchers with information on extreme
weather events that researchers themselves could not observe. In another instance, surfers
in San Luis Obispo County noticed an unusual odor in the water that was the result of an
oil spill. It was argued that such observations would prove valuable in many kinds of
research if researchers could identify questions which traditional knowledge might help
answer and those who might have relevant knowledge. Also, local observations may suggest
relevant questions or hypotheses for research to address.
Defining Traditional Knowledge
A more fundamental question than how to use traditional knowledge that arose was, just
what is it? Participants asked how traditional knowledge could be distinguished from
“local knowledge”, “someone’s opinion”, “someone’s
cause” or “personal experience”. One participant contrasted the knowledge
of the Inupiat people of Alaska with that of Santa Barbara surfers on the grounds that the
Inupiat “have a cultural tradition” and their knowledge constitutes not just
their own personal experience but “the personal experiences of their ancestors.”
Another asked if surfers might, indeed, pass knowledge from generation to generation,
suggesting that this would constitute a cultural tradition and, thus, lend their knowledge
greater credibility. It was also noted that all traditional knowledge starts as personal
experience and that traditional knowledge and local knowledge have non-cognitive
functions, among them, strengthening a sense of community.
Major Issue: Understanding the Role of the Ocean in Everyday
Life/The “Coastal Connection”
It was suggested that it is important to understand the many intangible ways in which
the ocean contributes to everyday life in coastal Pacific communities. For example, the
proximity of the ocean may help provide a “sense of place”, an intangible
phenomenon that, nevertheless, may provide both civic and economic benefits. Enjoyment of
views of the ocean or brief, casual visits to the beach may also be very important to
local residents. And, as one participant noted, simply the knowledge that one is near the
ocean, whether one visits it or not, may be valued. All such values, it was noted, may
depend on the belief that the ocean is not polluted. One participant referred to the
collection of such intangible factors as the “coastal connection” and described
them as “bequeath, existence and option values.” (That is, respectively, the
value of knowing the beach and ocean will be there for future generations, the value of
knowing they are currently intact and the value of the opportunity to visit the beach and
ocean, even if it is not exercised.) Several federal agencies, it was suggested might be
interested in research on the “coastal connection” (such as the Navy, the
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration and the Fish and Wildlife Service).
Major Issue: Understanding Recreation and Tourism
In both California and Florida, ocean recreation and ocean-related tourism are key
issues in the oil debate and participants discussed these topics at length. In southern
California, the coastal area (the coastal zone, near shore, and offshore areas) is heavily
used for oil development as well as a range of recreational, military, and commercial
activities, some compatible, others conflicting. Placement of platforms and on-shore
processing plants precludes some other uses. Offshore to onshore pipeline construction may
temporarily close beaches. These impacts are mitigated to the extent possible. The impact
of a potential oil spill on recreation and tourism is also a major concern. The Pacific
Region is funding a study to determine the value of a beach recreation day in southern
California. The study will survey residents regarding beach recreation activities. Results
should be instrumental in determining the cost of a beach closing caused by an oil spill.
(It was explained that recreation and tourism are not the same thing and have to be
distinguished for purposes of research. Tourists may engage in recreation, but all those
who engage in recreation are not tourists. Similarly, beach recreation must be
distinguished from other recreation and beach recreation itself can be divided into
beach-dependent and beach-enhanced recreation.)
The southern California coast is heavily populated. High-quality beach area is scarce
and the demand for multiple-use beach recreation area is growing. Some recreationists in
California have organized into strong, vocal, and politically active groups. Multiple-use
conflicts can become very pronounced, as evidenced in conflict between some recreation
uses and commercial fishing. Some recreation groups have voiced opposition to new oil
development. Recreationists are expected to be influential in the decommissioning process
and in determining the fate of retired drilling platforms. It was noted that along the
Florida coast, oil is absent and beaches are abundant. The large recreation and tourist
sector of the economy will likely play an important role in determining the future status
of exploratory and drilling leases in Florida.
Component Issues:
Understanding Tourist Perceptions
Some participants held that the aesthetic impact of drilling platforms was an important
issue in coastal communities, even though discussion usually focuses on questions of
environmental risk. One participant, however, argued that the visibility of platforms
probably had an insignificant effect on patterns of recreation and tourism when compared
with other factors. It was pointed out that virtually no research has been done on how
tourists (and potential tourists) perceive drilling platforms or other industry
structures. What do they willingly overlook? What would it take to drive them away?
Thinking about the effects of platform aesthetics on tourism and recreation, it was
argued, has been based largely on assumptions about tourist perceptions.
Understanding the Relationships Among Aesthetic Concerns,
Structure Visibility and Perceptions of Risk
One participant noted that a survey of students at the University of California, Santa
Barbara found that they exhibited a preference for placing platforms in remote or obscure
locations, where few coastal residents could see them, even though this might mean placing
structures in relatively pristine areas. Another participant reported that, in the
mid-1980s, it had been easier to get approval for development in an environmentally
sensitive area beyond public view north of Point Conception than in a more visible but
less sensitive area. Sub-sea completions (structures not visible on the surface) are
another way of removing structures from sight, but they may entail greater pollution
risks. Peoples’ assessments or awareness of the risks of what they cannot see and how
they deal with conflicts between aesthetic and environmental values are questions for
further study. It was suggested that simulation technology could be used to test reaction
to different scenarios using methods similar to those used in the legal profession in
research on jury characteristics and litigation strategies.
Assessing the Value of Tourism to the Local Economy
It was pointed out that research on tourism and recreation in the Pacific Region has not
focused on a fundamental question, that is, its contribution to local economies.
Major Issue: Using GIS in Socioeconomic Research
Discussion of the advantages and disadvantages of GIS yielded some specific issues for
the agency's attention. Advantages noted included the following:
